How to Grade/Sequence Tasks in TBLT?

Grading in TBLT
In TBLT, grading of tasks means sequencing or arranging them in a particular order according to a well defined rationale. Grading is a tool used in all syllabi to sequence materials for learning. In grammar-based syllabi, grammatical items are sequenced. In task-based syllabus, tasks are sequenced according to their difficulty so that learning happens on a smooth curve.

The techniques used in grammatical approaches to sequence tasks is not well received by the current task-based scholarship since all such approaches could do is provide a sequence of grammatical items and texts. This set of items or texts could reflect language abilities, but taken as individual items, they do not make any sense in terms of language ability/learning. Therefore, such an approach is rejected as being not very useful.

Tasks which are part of a task-based syllabus on the other hand do not claim that any one task reflects abilities to perform any other or all other tasks. Learning to perform a task enables you to do that particular task only (though you may be able to do many more tasks of the similar nature). Also, tasks are generally selected based on learners' needs. Therefore they do not come from any generalized assumption that some tasks form architypes or basis task types. Because of these reasons, unlike grammar-based syllabi, task-based syllabi do not seem to impede learning, but promote it in an organic fashion.

Grading Tools
Valency is the ability of a task to afford learning of particular item(s).
Criticality is the importance (or unavoidable significance) of an item to learn the target task.
Frequency is the importance of an item based on its number of occurrences in the real-world scenario.
Learnability is what the learners are capable of processing.
Task Complexity is judged based on multiple elements like amount of background knowledge available and to be used, language required to complete the task at hand, elements in a task, people involved in the task, planning time, etc. These are generally divided into cognitive factors and interactive factors.

• Cognitive factors are the factors that make demands on the attentional resources of the learner. Examples: the type of reasoning required, number of elements involved, whether information required is 'here-and-now' or not, planning time, task structure, number of steps in the task, etc. 
• Interactive factors are about interactional demands like open/closed task, one/two way information flow, number of participants, amount of contribution/negotiation needed, proficiency level, gender, age, power status, shared background and familiarity of interlocutors, etc. 

Task-based syllabi use relative complexity of tasks for task sequencing- not linguistic complexity. This is how task-based language syllabi are different from traditional grammatical syllabi.

Reference:
Long, M. (2014). Second Language Acquisition and Task-Based Language Teaching. Wiley Blackwell. Chichester.

Pedagogic Tasks: Selection and Simplification

Pedagogic Tasks
In task based language teaching, tasks need to be selected according to some reasonable logic. As per definitions of Willis and Willis (2007), any real-life task can be used in the classroom to teach language. Such tasks used in the classroom to teach language are called 'Pedagogic Tasks'.

How are Pedagogic Tasks selected?
Long (2014, p.234) proposes a step by step procedure to design a syllabus based on the principles of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT). As per this procedure, a Needs Analysis sets of this process. Once the linguistic needs the learner has to perform in the real-world are identified, Target Tasks are defined. Target tasks are the tasks the learner has to perform in the real-world. Then these target tasks are classified at a more abstract level to as target task types, so that they form a kind of generic task-types to be used in classroom. This is important as the learners within classrooms may not always be homogeneous in their needs and/or abilities. It is after this stage, that Pedagogic Tasks are derived. Pedagogic tasks are simpler versions or parts of the larger target tasks. Gradually the complexity of pedagogic tasks are increased. In the final stage, the pedagogic task complexity will reach he level of complexity of target tasks.

How Pedagogic Tasks are Simplified
Pedagogic tasks are simplified versions of target tasks. They can be simplified using multiple ways. One is by limiting the content/language required for task completion. For example, if the target task is 'making online reservations', one can start with a simpler task of 'filling personal details in a form'. Another way is to divide the target task into many sub-tasks and doing them one by one. The final task or the 'exit task' in the module must be the most complex task, or a task that is on par with the target task in terms of task complexity.

References
Long, M. (2014). Second Language Acquisition and Task-Based Language Teaching. Wiley Blackwell. Chichester.
Willis, D. & Willis, J., (2007). Doing Task Based Teaching. Oxford University Press. Oxford

Advantages of Task-based language teaching

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is a widely used approach today. Its acceptance is mainly due to the use of authentic materials in meaningful communicative contexts to help develop the learners' interlanguage using a focus on meaning rather than linguistic form. Some of its advantages are:

1. TBLT provides a context for negotiation and comprehension of meaning.
2. TBLT provides opportunities for uptake of corrective feedback.
3. TBLT provides opportunities for incorporation of pre-modified input.
4. TBLT provudes opportunities for noticing the gap between input and output, therefore supports metalinguistic reflection.
5. Tasks used can be designed to match the developmental stage of the learners.
6. Tasks are flexible, and any language activity can be a task. 
7. Any resource, including the L1 of the learner can be used in TBLT classrooms. 
8. Assessment is integrated into learning in task-based classrooms. Therefore, teachers get to understand where their students are by noting their task performance. 

There are more advantages. You may add them below in the comments box.

References:

Robinson, (2011). Second language task complexity: Researching the cognition hypothesis of language learning and performance. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Skehan, P. (2008). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Why dynamical systems approach to oral fluency research?

Oral fluency is an elusive construct. There are observable aspects of it which can be quantified. For example, time taken to speak, silent time during the turn, etc. There are also non-observable aspects that cannot be quantified or even clearly known about. For example, we do not know what are the underlying cognitive processes that lead to what we observe as speech. Among the observable aspects, there are elements which we do not know what to do with. For example, hesitations or repetitions: we don't know for sure if these are due to planning processes, lack of resources, or lower proficiency.

This is the where dynamical systems theory come in handy. Dynamical systems are complex systems or complex adaptive systems which have multiple interactive elements that change over time. The change itself dynamic in dynamical systems. How the systems changes over time changes over time.

The five features of dynamical systems as enumerated by Norman Segalowitz (2010) are as following:

1. Heterogeneity of elements and agents: there are a variety of interconnected elements within the system and they interact with each other. In case of fluency, they could be individual learner, cognitive and perceptual processes, beliefs, motivations, emotions, knowledge, aptitudes and attitudes of the learner.
2. System dynamics: connections and interconnections within the system, between elements change over time.
3. Non-linearity of the system: apart from change in interactions an connections, change itself changes within the system.
4. Openness of the system: dynamical systems are susceptible to external influences. They play a critical role in maintaining dynamic equilibrium (as opposed to steady state equilibrium).
5. Adaptation: a change in one part of the system rewsults in the system functioning in a changed or new way.

All components of dynamic systems thus are interconnected. This is challenging for the researcher since any predictions based on the whole system would be difficult to make since the system is dynamic and constantly changing. However, overestimating the system's flexibility may result in missing the regularities or patterns in the system. 

In the case of fluency research, dynamical systems approach can be useful because there are multiple interacting elements that constantly change/develop/evolve. Taking such interactions into consideration while designing research studies would do justice to the underlying processes of fluency, that are governed by these dynamic elements. Therefore, instead of looking at fluency as a static construct generated by a number of static elements, dynamical systems approach would be more meaningful for research.

Three-way Understanding of Oral Performance

Oral performance or speech is a very important aspect of language. Though very importance, we know very little of the processes of speech production. For he purposes of language teaching and assessment, we need to develop a better understanding of how speech production happens and what processes/aspects influence it. 

How do we understand oral performance? Speech is an act that make use of multiple abilities and instruments. To understand it cognitively, scholars like Crookes (1992) and Skehan (1992, 1996) have used three aspects of speech production. They are: Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency. 

Complexity and accuracy are concerned with 'form' or 'structure' of language in separate ways in terms of their emphasis, while accuracy is more concerned with the meaning of language produced. We shall look at each of these aspects in some detail.

Complexity

Complexity of oral language is about how the content of speech is organised. While speaking, complex language requires attentional resources to focus on elaborate language use. Here, elaborate language means, language with more complex structures, variety of linguistic patterns, longer and complex sentence structures, etc. It involves willingness of the language users to take risks and use available language structures about which they are not sure. Only when new language, structures and patterns are attempted in this manner does interlanguage development happens. Thus complex language use is directly related to interlanguage development.

Accuracy

Accuracy of oral language is about how the language produced is free from error. The language users will use various strategies to produce error-free language. One of the strategies is to use simple structures and patterns about which they are sure. 

Trade-Off Effect

This way, accuracy stands at odds with complexity. When contextual stress is on accuracy, complexity of language would be less and vice versa. For example, in an oral test of language, the test-takers would prefer producing more accurate language than a variety of structures and patterns and make mistakes. Therefore, they would limit themselves to known language and produce more accurate, but less complex language. Or in other situations where more complex language is expected, they would attempt more complex structures and produce a variety of patterns and structures, but end up with a lot of errors in language. This is known as trade-off effect. 

Fluency

Fluency reflects primacy of meaning. It is understood as the capacity of a language user to cope with the pressures of real-time or online communication. During communication, the stress will be on optimal language production using available attention resources. Therefore, language users may prioritise lexicalized or memory-based language use, and avoid the online construction of rule-based language which needs a lot more cognitive resources. Memory-based language use makes use of available chunks of language which are readily accessible from memory while rule-based language use requires online computation to compose utterances, and requires much more attentional resources. Therefore, language users who focus on fluency may use idiom-based language for smooth communication. Fluency shows how effective the cognitive planning process is and how the propositions made are actualised in communication. 

References

Crookes, G. (1989). Planning and interlanguage variation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11, 367-383.

Foster, P., & Skehan, P. (1996). The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 299-323. 

Skehan, P. (1992). Strategies in second language acquisition. (Working Papers in English Language Teaching No.1). London: Thames Valley University.

Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics, 17, 38-62.

The Need for Assessment Literacy among Teachers

The need for teachers' assessment literacy is on the increase due to the increasing responsibilities placed on teachers with regard to assessment. Ongoing classroom assessment requires the teacher to be aware of the technicalities of assessment. Not only that, the teacher needs to know how to design a good assessment for her classroom. This might be too much expectation, considering the fact that teachers do not receive much training in this regard during teacher training, and that time is not abundantly available for a teacher. Unless in-service training and personal interest combined with institutional and peer support work hand in hand, teacher may not be able to do this effectively. Also, leaving the teacher out of the circle of assessment will be further widening the gap between theory and practice in the larger discipline called pedagogy- one of the greatest pedagogical tragedies of all times!

Teacher in Class: Source

The gravity of the fact becomes clearer if we understand that any decision we make at the policy level or administrative level cannot reach the learner without the teachers' sound understanding. So if assessment is well planned and designed by someone other than the teacher, its implementation may not succeed at all, because in the classroom, it is the teacher who has to face the ground reality. If the teacher doesn't understand why the assessment is designed the way it is designed, its implementation may miss the point! Moreover, teacher is the most important element in pedagogy after the learner. It is the teacher who bridges the curriculum objectives and the learner. Therefore, the teacher needs to have a sound understanding of how assessment is designed, implemented and scored.

What works better? One time teacher training or ongoing teacher engagement? Certainly, the latter. It is because ongoing teacher development does not take the teacher away from her teaching context. She can practice and experiment with what she learns in teacher development programmes. The former on the other hand will be a stand alone programme that doesn't connect with teaching contexts or students. It is quite possible that what one learns during a stand alone programme remains unused. For the same reason, it is important that teachers remain active within dynamic professional communities that update themselves about the latest developments in pedagogy. Healthy relationships among teachers can lead to sharing of resources and ideas, and can result in action research with much prospect.

Since teaching and assessment go hand in hand, and assessment feeds back into instruction, a teacher has to have at least the basic know how of assessment. Lack of this understanding will lead to inefficient tests in class, inappropriate interpretation of test scores, and pointless instruction that doesn't reflect in assessment. If teacher has to give quality feedback, she must understand assessment. Hence the importance of assessment literacy.

Teachers should have hands-on experience of identifying learners' learning goals, stating that in clear terms for test development, stating learning outcomes, proposing what authentic assessment is, writing tasks that fit the cultural and social contexts of learners, writing rubrics for assessment, and defining criteria for rating. This can be achieved through practice, while in touch with professional companions, and professional development programmes. How we do it is not as important as the fact that we do it no matter what- because, teacher's awareness of assessment is as important as her awareness of teaching techniques!

Need for focused tasks in TBLT

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) emphasises the primacy of meaning in communication. But communication is primarily lexical. We use words processed as lexis for communication. Therefore, TBLT may just automatize performance of particular tasks through use of communication strategies. Therefore, we need to explain how exchange of meaning becomes useful to development of language when communication of meaning itself is lexical.

This is why we need focused tasks in TBLT. Focused tasks help the learner to focus on language form while communicating meaning. For example, a task could still be communicative when the learner gives multiple instructions to different parties, using certain structures introduced through the task. Such focus on form helps the learner to stretch his/her interlanguage, leading to language development.

Skehan, P. (1996). A Framework for the Implementation of Task-based Instruction. Applied Linguistics, Oxford University Press.

Communicative Tasks for CBSE Class X Skills Assessment

Task 1: Pair discussion task designed to assess candidates’ speaking ability

Help Vijaya

Read the instructions carefully before you begin speaking. You can make notes and use them while discussing. You will get 3 minutes to discuss.

Your friend Preethi’s mother is a bank manager. Recently she is transferred from Delhi to your town. Preethi secured admission in your college, in your course. But she has no idea about the subjects of study and examination pattern in your college. Since classes have already started, and first term examination is approaching, she wants to know more about the subjects you study, their content in short, and the kind of questions that appear in the examination. Share these details with her to help her deal with this situation.

This is a personal information exchange task where test-takers share their own information.

Task 2: A task using ‘performing actions based on listening’

Building Origami Cat Face

Listen to the audio carefully and follow the instructions.

Transcript of audio:

Step 1: Take a square-shaped piece of paper.

Step 2: Fold the paper from corner to corner, diagonally- this is fold 1

Step 3: Fold the it again from corner to corner diagonally- this is fold 2. Press the folds firmly and open fold 2.

Step 4: Fold the top pointy end about ¼ of the way down- this is fold 3.

Step 5: Fold the other two corners upwards at about 5-degree angles- this is fold 4 (draw the angle on board)

Step 6: Turn the paper around and draw eyes, nose, mouth and moustaches. Your Origami cat face is now ready!

This is a very simple task to assess listening skills based on the action that follows.

Task 3: An example reading task to assess discourse structure is given below.

Assessing formal discourse structure [Adopted from (Krishnan, Testing Reading, 2012)]

Read the following paragraph. Then divide it into three paragraphs with the following headings: 1-New Immigration System, 2-Indians May Benefit, 3-Other Foreign-Policies.

U.S. President Donald Trump has proposed a merit-based immigration system. It could benefit highly-skilled Indian workers. But it prevents them from sponsoring their extended families. It is part of an aggressive plan which he said will serve national interest. However, there was no reference to the H-1B visas in the proposal which Mr. Trump sent to Congress on Sunday. It is the most sought after visa by Indian IT professionals. Therefore, it is assumed that Indians would benefit from the new policy. Trump administration has more in their wish list. One of them is overhauling the country’s green-card system. Another is the funding of a controversial border wall along the U.S.-Mexico border. A third is said to be a crackdown on unaccompanied minors entering the country.

Task 4: A writing task.

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You have received a new bicycle as a birthday gift. Therefore, you want to sell your old blue coloured bicycle which is in good condition. You recently got it serviced, and replaced both the tyres. Write an advertisement for your school notice board in about 40 words. 

Article: Smartphones and Language Learning by Robert Godwin-Jones

First ELT Textbook Published in India (1797)

The first English Language Teaching (ELT) textbook for Indians in India was published in the 18th century. To be exact, in the year 1797. The title of the book was: "The Tutor". It was written and published by John Miller at Serampore, West Bengal. It was the first book to teach English for those outside Europe. The only known copy of this book is preserved in the library of Calcutta University. See the image of its front page below.

It contained the alphabet, a section on pronunciation, a vocabulary list, a grammar section, practical dialogues (related to riverboat trading), and handwriting practice. A part of the dialogue series is shown in the image below.

Details of the Book

Title: The Tutor 

Full title: Tue Tutor, or a New English and Bengalee Work, Well Adapted to Teach the Natives English

Author: John Miller

Publisher: John Miller

Year: 1797

Place: Serampore, West Bengal, India