David Nunan’s Framework for Task Based Language Teaching

Nunan’s framework for Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is built upon the concept of pedagogical tasks. Pedagogical tasks are real world tasks used for learning. They range from rehearsal task to activation tasks. Rehearsal tasks give learners some practice in doing a real world task, while an activation task activates cognitive skills and strategies required for such activities. It its strongest form, TBLT is very much like Communicative Language Teaching where language acquisition is a subconscious process, and conscious grammar teaching is unnecessary. Thus strong form of TBLT advocates the replication of natural processes of language acquisition in the classroom.

Nunan advocates a sort of form focus in the early stages of second language acquisition. So he includes what he calls as enabling skills in his framework. Enabling skills facilitate the processes of authentic communication. They are of two kinds- language exercises and communicative activities. Language exercises are judged with the linguistic outcomes (In contrast, pedagogic tasks are evaluated with their completion in terms of goal.). Communicative activities take manipulative practice from language exercises, and meaningful communication from pedagogical tasks. These activities are authentic and free because of the meaningful communication involved.

This framework is chosen from many others available because of the simplicity of its organisation and its effectiveness in creating task-based lessons and syllabii. Nunan himself suggests ways of organizing syllabii and developing units. 

Four marking properties of a task

What are the four marking properties of a Language-learning Task?

1. Tasks are meaning focused communicative activities
2. Tasks have some kind of a gap (information/opinion/reasoning)
3. Tasks require learners to use their own linguistic and non-linguistic resources to complete the task.
4. Tasks have a communicative outcome. (Even in an input task, there is some kind of an outcome.)

Focus on form and focus on meaning: two approaches to language teaching

There are two approaches to language teaching- form-focused and meaning-focused approaches.

Form-focused approach

This approach believes in carefully training language learners in the structures of the language by providing grammatical forms/structures and their usage. In this approach, the teacher identifies the forms that should be taught in class. Usually, by the end of a particular lesson, learners are expected to ‘accurately’ produce these target language structures in language. Therefore, accuracy is the aim of form-focused approach.

Teachers exercises control over such classrooms. Presentation of the form and its practice is highly controlled. During the production stage when learners produce target language using the focus forms, teacher slowly relaxes control so that learners can freely produce language on their own. There is explicit correction involved in this process, because accuracy is very important.

The salient features of this approach are:

1. Focus on forms selected by the teacher
2.  Introduction of the form before communicative activity
3. Teacher controlled classroom which is gradually relaxed
4. Success of form-focused instruction is learners’ ability to accurately produce target forms in language

Meaning-focused approach

In this approach, the focus is on meaningful communication in target language. Stress is on fluency, not on accuracy. Therefore, target language use is highly encouraged in a meaning-focused classroom, even though it involves errors.

But this approach is not entirely without focus on form/language. During meaning-focused communicative activities, learners themselves would naturally think about certain language items to be used in order to communicate effectively. This is called a focus on language. This focus on language can also involve the teacher. For example, learners may ask the teacher for some clarification. In such occasions, teacher acts as a participant, not as a controlling agent.

Later, the teacher can draw attention to particular forms which are used in communication or came up in a text used. The learner can be lead to look at and practice a form in this context. Even here, focus is on meaning. Focus on form comes after the communicative activity. It can be incidental correction of a form to build awareness. Corrections are done by the teacher who stands as an objective outsider to communicative activity. For this we need a teacher who is confident who can comment on the language of the learner.

Teacher doesn’t control learners’ language use. If learners complete the activity, it is a successful procedure. During the procedure, there emerges a focus on language. Teacher participates and helps by clarifying doubts. Finally it ends with a focus on form. The idea is that these classes should help the learner to improve fluency and accuracy. The focus on form is for accuracy.

This approach can have these elements chronologically:

1. Focus on meaning: this is the communicative activity. Communication is aimed at fluent use of language.
2. Focus on language: here learners themselves reflect on their appropriate language use. This might also involve the teacher as a participant.
3. Focus on form: specific forms are focused upon. Teacher corrects or comment upon learner’s language use.

What is important is that a focus on form comes after the communicative activity (focus on meaning) and focus on language. 

Validity of a Test

A test is said to be valid if it measures what it is intended to measure.

Construct validity refers to a general notion of validity.

When we talk about validity, we need to have evidence to prove it. Therefore, we have different types of validity. They are described below.

1.       Content validity

A test has content validity if its content constitutes a fair representative sample of the language skills, structures, etc. with which it is meant to be concerned. It is like a proper sample of relevant structures dealt with in the teaching programme. The idea is that the test should not be based on any particular section of the syllabus. If it is so, then there would be negative backwash effect.

A document specifying skills and structures to be tested is necessary to create a good test. What is expected in a test for content validity is a wise representation of this test specification. Can compare test specifications and test content to judge on the content validity of the test. Usually this validation is done by someone not related to the construction of the test itself.

What is the significance of content validity? First, greater the content validity, the more accurate will the measurement be. Second, if there is no content validity, there would be negative backwash. Therefore, writing full-test-specification is a necessary step to ensure a test’s content validity.

2.       Criterion-related validity

Criterion-related validity is defined as the degree to which the results of the test agree with another set of results provided by some independent, highly dependable assessment of the candidate’s language ability. This independent assessment is the criterion against which the test is validated here.

There are two kinds of criterion-related validity.

a.       Concurrent validity.

Concurrent validity is established when a test and its criterion are administered at about the same time. This is done in many ways. It may not be practical to test all the items in the test specification. In such cases, short tests are conducted on large scale to save time, money and effort. In that case, in order to ensure validity, conduct a full-test on a selected sample set of students using four scorers to ensure reliable scoring. This is the criterion against which the shorter test would be validated. Then, we need to compare the two scores using a correlation coefficient. If there is a great deal of agreement, then the shorter test is said to be valid. Here, the purpose of the test determines what level of agreement is to be expected. A high stakes test should look for a greater agreement, while a low stakes test can look for a lower agreement with the criterion. In informal situations, the teachers’ judgment can also be the criterion against which concurrent validation is done.

b.       Predictive validity

Predictive validity a kind of criterion-referenced validity, which is the degree to which a test can predict a candidate’s future performance. For example, a test like GRE predicts whether a candidate is able to undertake graduate studies in a university.

Here, criterion can be an assessment of the candidates’ language ability done by his/her supervisor in a university or the result/outcome of a course. Depending on the criterion chosen, the correlation coefficient is adjusted. Then the test score is validated against the chosen criterion.

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Human Development in ELT

Vygotsky was a Soviet and Russian developmental and educational psychologist. He is the originator of ‘sociocultural theory of human development’. This theory influenced instruction in various domains as it helped scholars understand how human beings learn. Related to the field of Second Language Acquisition, the sociocultural theory afforded conceptualizations about how human beings learn a new language and what factors promote this learning. Vygotsky conceptualizes a social plain of interaction related to language. According to him, unique human mental functions or the higher order psychological processes happen in this plain. This is the same plain where actual human interactions take place. The cultural development of a child happens first in this intermental plain where people interact. Only in the second stage does it appear in the intramental plain of the individuals ‘within’. Language development also follows this route as cultural development for internalization.

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Lev Semyonovich VygotskyWhat is the mechanism by which the transition from intermental to intramental plain happens? Explanation given by Vygotsky and like-minded scholars is of ‘mediation’. By mediation, they mean transformation of impulsive, natural and non-mediated behavior into higher order mental processes by using symbolic, technological or human tools like language/computers/human beings. This happens primarily through socially meaningful activities. Mediation presupposes human participation. This is because ‘meaning’ can only be communicated when there is participation and communicability. These qualities are afforded only by human beings. In short, this can be summarized as ‘human behavior is mediated by language.’

Point to Ponder: This then leads us to question whether technology-enabled communication which sometimes claims that machines can teach language is effective at all.

Such language mediation is the reason behind the existence of polysemy. In interaction, meaning exchanges guide mediation, and lead to internalization. How does this transformation from inter to intramental space happen? It is not a linear one-step process. It is a complicated process that involves the construction of the inner plain itself. In communicational exchanges, people share their inner plains. Such shared spaces later afford the internalization of language. According to Vygotsky, when experts guide non-experts towards internalization, something called a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is created. Instruction is supposed to be easier in this zone. 

Notes prepared from: Barohny, E. (2016). Bringing Vygotsky and Bakhtin into the second Language classroom: A focus on the unfinalized nature of communication. The Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 6(1), 114-125. 

LANGUAGE POLICIES: HOW TO RESOLVE THE ‘IDEAL VS. PRACTICAL’ ISSUE?

What is the goal of language education? The answer depends on one’s philosophical and theoretical affiliation. It could be anything from proficiency to mere familiarity with language expressions. These goals are expressed in curricula and are influenced by factors like government level policy decisions. Theoretical perspectives, political/religious ideology of the state, beliefs of the learners, teachers, parents etc., and social expectations about education in general influence curricula (The NCF 2005 draws from Chomsky, Vygotsky and Piaget) are examples. The level of introduction of English in school is one such issue of contention. In my opinion, a curriculum designer’s primary duty is to define goals of education and work towards their fulfilment. But in doing so, one has to take the other participants in the milieu of education into confidence to ensure smooth functioning of the system.

The dichotomy between achievement and proficiency is an issue that needs to be negotiated with. NCF 2005 advocates assessment of proficiency as the ideal. Since language is simultaneously a content subject and a tool to study other subjects, it stands at a crossroad. Moreover, English is considered a necessary prerequisite for higher education in India. At the same time, if English as a subject is an impediment for passing major examinations, we have a ‘no detention’ policy. But even with this policy, syllabus designers must strive to create conducive environments for students to have basic proficiency in English. 

Input rich communicational environment is a prerequisite for language learning. In a regional language dominated context, providing such an environment is a challenging task. Availability of materials and funds, proficiency of teachers, educational awareness of the larger society are factors affecting this aspect. In rural (and most urban) environments, such an environment is impossible to be created. The ideal and reality are far too distant. To address this issue, a syllabus can give freedom to its users to incorporate available resources, apart from providing sufficient materials.

National Achievement Survey conducted by NCERT, for class 10 students in the year 2015 shows how rural/urban setting, community, gender and type of school influence language learning outcome. As far as possible, such differences among learners must be incorporated into written local syllabi, that has sufficient freedom to adapt to a large variety of learner needs. The use of the existing (language) knowledge of learners must be ensured, in order to build new knowledge. This knowledge includes learner’s first language. Making use of native language in teaching English is indeed a welcome measure and has to reflect in syllabi. 

Technology in Language Testing

Technology-based learning tasks are fine, but not developing assessment tasks through technology. It is seen as a problematic area, while being assessed as having a lot of promises. There is a lot of variety in presenting text and media to examinees. But the question is whether we can adapt to individual levels during test taking.

Technology-enabled language assessment can give responses, evaluation, and feedback individually in no time. But some question the validity of technology in tests. How different would it be from traditional tests? Since every aspect of such tests require technical proficiency of the learner, technology is not invisible in such tests. Some ask whether it is a test of technology awareness/proficiency or that of language.

But technology is here with us, and is spreading even to the remotest areas of the Earth. So saying that it is a deviant phenomenon is not the best response to technology in language testing. Learners need to be prepared for such tests. Familiarity needs to be built. TOEFL has multiple choice questions, highlighting, etc. Therefore, TOEFL examinees must be prepared for it by going through practice sessions where they learn how to use computers in answering questions.

Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)

CMC allows for synchronous and asynchronous communication.

Synchronous communication means that communication is taking place in real time. Live chatting is an example. It can be in voice, audio or text mode or a combination of two or all of them.

Asynchronous communication means that users can read/speak/watch and write/hear/record messages stored on a server, at a later point.

Depending on the time of access, synchronous media can be used as asynchronous media, and vice versa. For example, somebody sends a chat message, which is accessed the next day becomes asynchronous, but using synchronous medium. Similarly, two people can respond to emails instantly like in live chat, to make it a synchronous medium.

Mode: one to one, one to many, many to one and many to many mode.

Participants could be familiar or unfamiliar people.

Topics could be anything from anywhere. Information, news, media, video, etc. could become your topic.

Written mode of communication lets learners take time in composing their responses, giving ample time to reflect on language before and after production.

Listserv type of applications can distribute messages to all simultaneously making communication easier.

Web publishing is another means used by teachers to make use of the writing skills of learners.

Effect of Corpus Linguistics on Language Teaching

Conrad speaks of three effects

1. Monolithic descriptions of English will give way to register-specific descriptions.

   Register determines the frequency of use of words in the language.

2. The teaching of grammar will become more integrated with the teaching of vocabulary.

   Corpus linguistics provides more information than what could be memorized for practice. Lexical   combinations that are actually used, and their frequency of usage are given by corpus linguistics.

3. Focus on grammar teaching will change from structural accuracy to appropriate conditions of use.

   Knowing what structure to use when is more useful than knowing all the structures.

These views from computer-assisted corpus linguistics have changed how grammar is taught. The use of corpora of oral language is likely to provide more insights and teaching resources in the future.

How Context Influences Communication

Applied linguists need to reconsider the concept of communicative competence afforded by the means of communication offered by modern technology today. This context includes large volumes of information, multi-modal texts, evolving technologies, etc. So the construct of communicative competence needs to accommodate the fact that communication media exerts an influence in the meaning making process. We need to broaden our constructs of reading and writing to include the affordances of computer, mobile devices, web and internet. Language and literacy skills need to be redefined to adapt to the new media. In short, we need to reconsider communicative competence in the light of technology.

Communicative Language Ability is a theory that takes into consideration the context in which language is used. Here, situational factors are considered important for the specific abilities needed to perform in particular contexts. One should know the register of the context in order to communicate ‘about’ that context. This framework for communicative language ability exists, but need further work in its particulars. For this, one must study contexts of communication, the registers, and the strategic competencies. Since learners will have to have control over these in order to communicate effectively, a teacher/theoretician should understand them well. They are tools for communication today. English speech communities today are becoming more and more specialized niches that use particular registers of their own. Thus further studies need to take lead in this direction.